The Battle of Wǔzhàngyuán

"Your Majesty, I have been entrusted with the task of suppressing the rebels and restoring the glory of the imperial family. Should I fail to accomplish this, I ask that my crime be judged, and my confession be made before the spirit of the late Emperor. Your Majesty, please take heed, choose the right course of action, and listen carefully to wise words, deeply engraving the late Emperor’s instructions in your heart. Your Majesty’s great grace fills me with deep gratitude. As I depart, tears cloud my vision, and I do not know what words to speak."

 

 

1. The "Yung Jung Strategy"

Zhuge Liang proposed the "Three Kingdoms Strategy" to Liu Bei in Yung Jung. It involved securing the regions of Jingzhou, Yizhou, and Hanzhong, forming an alliance with Eastern Wu, and then waiting for an opportunity to rise against Wei when turmoil struck their ranks. In this way, Liu Bei’s forces, which were at a disadvantage, could match the strength of Cao Cao’s forces. This strategy presented a real chance for Liu Bei to unify the empire. Indeed, just as Liu Bang (Emperor Gao of Han) had done, securing Hanzhong and Yizhou, and advancing to Guanzhong, the Han dynasty unified China. After Zhuge Liang and Liu Bei’s meeting, the Yung Jung Strategy progressed steadily. Eventually, when Liu Bei took control of Hanzhong, he could rightfully claim the title of King of Hanzhong. This was highly significant, as it evoked memories of Liu Bang, the founder of the Han dynasty. Despite the fall of the Han dynasty, many within Wei still remained loyal to the Han, and Liu Bei’s claim to Hanzhong sent ripples through the Wei court. It was seen as a signal for the revival of the Han. However, Liu Bei’s kingdom, Shu, later lost Jingzhou and suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Yiling. With the loss of Jingzhou and the defeat at Yiling, the Yung Jung Strategy faltered. Following Liu Bei’s death, the fate of Shu rested heavily on Zhuge Liang’s shoulders.

 

2. The Continuing Failures of the Northern Campaign

In 227 AD, five years after Liu Bei’s death, Zhuge Liang submitted a memorial to the new emperor, Liu Shan. After the defeat at Yiling, the Shu kingdom had suffered severe setbacks. For the next five years, Zhuge Liang worked tirelessly to rebuild the kingdom’s strength. Meanwhile, Cao Pi, the emperor of Wei, died, and his son Cao Rui ascended the throne. As with any dynastic transition, Wei was facing internal instability. Zhuge Liang saw this as an opportunity and launched the first Northern Campaign. Over the next four campaigns, however, the Shu forces were consistently blocked by the Wei general, Sima Yi, and were forced to retreat each time. In the field, Zhuge Liang had been victorious, but Sima Yi’s defensive strategy prevented him from advancing. Despite these setbacks, Zhuge Liang never gave up. He had a clear reason for continuing the campaign—to fulfill the promise made to Liu Bei and restore the Han dynasty. But there was more to it. Comparing the two kingdoms, Shu’s power was at a significant disadvantage to Wei. If Shu simply stood by, Wei would inevitably conquer them. Thus, Shu had no choice but to secure Guanzhong to survive. After four failed campaigns, Zhuge Liang spent three years preparing for his final northern expedition.

 

3. The Final Northern Campaign

Zhuge Liang’s final campaign in 234 AD involved an army of over 100,000 soldiers, the largest force since the Battle of Yiling. Wei’s forces predicted that Zhuge Liang would advance from the southern regions towards Muguang, a strategically important area. If Shu could secure Muguang, they would have an advantage, enabling them to march on Chang’an through Wei’s heartland. At the time, no one in Wei could match Zhuge Liang in the field. Thus, Sima Yi preemptively blocked Zhuge Liang’s advance into Muguang. In response, Zhuge Liang moved towards Wuzhangyuan and set up a base there. He established supply lines, garnered the local population’s support, and settled into Wuzhangyuan.

 

4. The Wuzhangyuan Stalemate

When the Shu forces set up in Wuzhangyuan, Wei’s southern territories came under Shu influence. This was highly problematic for Wei, but the Wei forces were unable to attack Wuzhangyuan easily. If they attempted to, the Shu army could either intercept them across the Wei River or launch a counterattack from the strategically high ground of Wuzhangyuan. Wei forces would have had a tough time advancing. However, Sima Yi was in a difficult position. The region around Chang’an, which had only recently fallen to Wei, was crucial for Sima Yi, as it was the birthplace of the Han dynasty and a place with many loyalists to the Han cause. Furthermore, Zhuge Liang’s presence in Wuzhangyuan with local support was undermining Sima Yi’s previous efforts to promote agricultural development. If Sima Yi attacked Wuzhangyuan, he would risk losing ground in the southern territories. On the other hand, doing nothing would allow Zhuge Liang to continue his operations, draining Wei’s resources. Wei’s forces, numbering 200,000, were stretched thin, and this imposed a significant burden on Wei’s treasury. However, Sima Yi continued his defensive strategy. For nearly a hundred days, only small skirmishes occurred between the two sides.

 

5. What Could Have Been

In Shu, Zhuge Liang was the de facto ruler, holding more power than even the emperor, Liu Shan. On the other hand, Sima Yi’s position within Wei was not as strong as Zhuge Liang’s. Zhuge Liang was able to act according to his principles in leading the army, while Sima Yi lacked the same freedom. The continued stalemate at Wuzhangyuan and the mounting pressure from his own officers eventually led to internal demands for Sima Yi to launch an offensive. If Sima Yi had succumbed to this pressure and engaged Zhuge Liang in an all-out battle, he would likely have been defeated. While it was possible that Sima Yi could have won, based on their previous encounters, there was no one in Wei who could match Zhuge Liang in the field. If Sima Yi had fallen, Zhuge Liang could have pressed on to Chang’an, and Guanzhong would have surely fallen under Shu’s control. This would have been a crucial blow to Wei, and the hearts of the people would likely have turned toward Shu. The momentum could have resulted in the revival of the Han dynasty. However, a variable existed—time.

 

6. The Ultimate Loyalist

On October 8, 234 AD, Zhuge Liang passed away at the age of 53. By the time of the fifth northern campaign, Zhuge Liang must have known his time was limited. However, he could do nothing about his fate. After Liu Bei’s death, he dedicated himself to the restoration of Shu. Despite the devastation of the Battle of Yiling, Zhuge Liang managed to rebuild Shu in just five years. He then led the kingdom in five campaigns against Wei. Throughout this period, Zhuge Liang was undoubtedly overworked. Yet he did not stop; he could not stop. As the saying goes, "Bend your body, give all your strength, and only stop after death." His efforts were relentless until his final breath. After his death, many admired him. While Sima Yi was criticized as one of the four great traitors of his time, Zhuge Liang was revered as the epitome of loyalty. There were many loyal servants throughout history, but none were as universally admired as Zhuge Liang. Some say that no one before or after him has embodied the ideals of the "gentleman" so completely and beautifully.