The 20th Battle of Constantinople

The Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantine XI, watched the Ottoman army pour into the city. From the moment he became emperor, he had foreseen this moment. Now, the final hour had arrived. He threw off his purple cloak. Gripping his sword, he courageously charged alone towards the Ottoman forces. In doing so, he joined his soldiers, his empire, and his city of Constantinople in their shared fate. It was the final day of Constantinople.

 

 

1. Constantinople
Since Emperor Constantine I declared Constantinople as the new capital, the city had been the heart of the Byzantine Empire for over 1,100 years. Located at the crossroads between Europe and Asia, and between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, Constantinople thrived as a center of maritime trade. The city was the queen of cities, renowned worldwide. At its peak, its population was about 400,000, with 80,000 foreigners. The city was also a natural fortress, surrounded on three sides by water, and on the land side by the formidable Theodosian Walls. For a thousand years, the city had withstood 19 invasions without ever being conquered. Although only a small part of the Byzantine Empire, including the Peloponnese and the city itself, remained, no one dared to lay siege to this indomitable city—until he came.

 

2. Mehmed II
In 1451, a new sultan ascended the throne of the Ottoman Empire: Mehmed II, a 19-year-old ruler full of ambition. At that time, the Ottoman Empire controlled the Balkans and Anatolia, expanding its territory in all directions. However, a problem remained: the city of Constantinople, where the Eastern Orthodox Christianity of the Byzantine Empire persisted in the heart of an Islamic empire. The city split the Ottoman realm between Europe and Asia. The Ottomans regarded this city as an obstacle. But many had hesitated to attack it due to its reputation as an impregnable fortress. Mehmed, however, declared his intention to conquer Constantinople as soon as he took the throne. Despite opposition from his advisors, he pressed on with his plans. Many believed that even he, with his vast forces, would fail to breach the city's defenses.

 

3. The Theodosian Walls
The Theodosian Walls, built on the landward side of Constantinople, had protected the city throughout the medieval period. The walls were triple-layered: the first line consisted of a moat and a dry wall; the second line was a 5-meter-high, 2-meter-thick outer wall; and the third line was a 12-meter-high, 5-meter-thick inner wall. These walls were punctuated by 96 towers, allowing constant surveillance of the enemy. No army had ever breached these walls through direct assault. Even Attila the Hun, known as the "Scourge of God," had turned back at their base. Numerous Islamic forces had attempted to conquer Constantinople but all had failed. Many believed that Mehmed, too, would fail when he attacked in 1453 with an army of 150,000 men. Meanwhile, Urban's cannons were being transported to Constantinople from the Ottoman capital of Edirne.

 

4. The Urban Cannons
The Urban cannons were created by a Hungarian engineer named Urban. These massive bronze cannons, transported by 60 oxen and 200 men, were 8 meters long and weighed 19 tons. The cannonballs weighed 300 kg, and the cannons had a range of 1.6 km. However, these cannons had a critical flaw: it took 3 hours to cool the cannon after each shot, meaning that no more than seven shots could be fired a day. If fired too much, the cannon could explode due to the heat. Despite this, the immense power of the cannons began to make a dent in the walls of Constantinople. The defenders of the city were able to repair the walls during the cooling periods, but the psychological impact on the city's defenders and citizens began to show.

 

5. The Golden Horn
Mehmed II was growing impatient. He directed his forces to launch continued assaults, but still, there was no sign that the city would fall. He eventually turned his attention to the Golden Horn. Constantinople's geography was triangular, with land connections to the northwest, and the south and northeast bordering the seas. The city's most vulnerable side was the northeast, facing the Golden Horn. If the Ottomans could attack by sea from this direction, they could have a decisive advantage. However, this route was blocked by a massive chain that stretched across the water. The Ottoman navy was unable to break this chain. But Mehmed II devised a brilliant plan. He had ships transported overland through the forests of Galata, bypassing the chain. On April 22, 1453, half of the Ottoman fleet entered the Golden Horn through Galata. The defenders were caught off guard, as they had not anticipated an attack from this direction. As a result, the city's northeast walls were poorly defended.

 

6. The Fall of the Millennium Empire
Despite the odds, the 7,000 defenders and 50,000 citizens of Constantinople fought desperately. The city's damages were severe, but the Ottomans were also suffering heavy losses. The Ottomans even dug tunnels to try and breach the walls, but all of these attempts failed. In the face of mounting losses, Mehmed II sent an offer of surrender, which was predictably rejected. Then, on May 26, 1453, a lunar eclipse occurred. Both the Ottomans and the defenders of Constantinople witnessed it. To the Ottomans, it was a sign of good fortune, but to the defenders, it was a bad omen. For several days, torrential rains and thick fog poured over the city. Moreover, a strange red glow appeared at the top of Hagia Sophia, adding to the sense of foreboding. On May 29, 1453, the Ottomans launched their final assault. Starting at midnight and continuing into the afternoon, the defenders resisted fiercely, but their strength was almost gone. Eventually, Ottoman flags began to wave atop the walls, and Ottoman forces poured into the city. The defenders and citizens of Constantinople fell beneath their blades. Even Hagia Sophia fell into Ottoman hands. After 58 days of fierce fighting, the Byzantine Empire was no more. The thousand-year-old empire had fallen.

 

7. The End of the Middle Ages
With the fall of Constantinople and the end of the Hundred Years' War that same year, the Middle Ages came to an end. After the conquest of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire took control of the eastern Mediterranean. This led to a dramatic increase in the price of goods flowing from Asia to Europe, as the Mediterranean trade routes were now under Ottoman control. This forced European Christians to seek new routes to the East, ultimately leading to Columbus's discovery of the New World. Meanwhile, the Venetian and Genoese republics, which had once flourished through Mediterranean trade, began to decline as a result of the discovery of the New World. Instead, Atlantic trade, led by France, England, the Netherlands, Spain, and Portugal, began to rise in prominence. Additionally, many Byzantine scholars, artists, and technicians fled to Italy after the fall of the empire. They played a significant role in the emergence of the Renaissance in Western Europe.